diff --git a/src/ActiveQuery.php b/src/ActiveQuery.php
index f7359dbb0..62b833dcc 100644
--- a/src/ActiveQuery.php
+++ b/src/ActiveQuery.php
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@
 use Yiisoft\Db\Exception\NotSupportedException;
 use Yiisoft\Db\Expression\ExpressionInterface;
 use Yiisoft\Db\Helper\DbArrayHelper;
-use Yiisoft\Db\Query\BatchQueryResultInterface;
+use Yiisoft\Db\Query\DataReaderInterface;
 use Yiisoft\Db\Query\Query;
 use Yiisoft\Db\Query\QueryInterface;
 use Yiisoft\Db\QueryBuilder\QueryBuilderInterface;
@@ -25,7 +25,6 @@
 use function array_combine;
 use function array_flip;
 use function array_intersect_key;
-use function array_key_first;
 use function array_map;
 use function array_merge;
 use function array_values;
@@ -104,7 +103,7 @@
  * @psalm-import-type ARClass from ActiveQueryInterface
  * @psalm-import-type IndexKey from ArArrayHelper
  *
- * @psalm-property IndexKey $indexBy
+ * @psalm-property IndexKey|null $indexBy
  * @psalm-suppress ClassMustBeFinal
  */
 class ActiveQuery extends Query implements ActiveQueryInterface
@@ -125,23 +124,13 @@ final public function __construct(
         parent::__construct($this->getARInstance()->db());
     }
 
-    public function all(): array
+    public function each(): DataReaderInterface
     {
-        if ($this->shouldEmulateExecution()) {
-            return [];
-        }
-
-        return $this->populate($this->createCommand()->queryAll(), $this->indexBy);
-    }
-
-    public function batch(int $batchSize = 100): BatchQueryResultInterface
-    {
-        return parent::batch($batchSize)->setPopulatedMethod($this->populate(...));
-    }
-
-    public function each(int $batchSize = 100): BatchQueryResultInterface
-    {
-        return parent::each($batchSize)->setPopulatedMethod($this->populate(...));
+        /** @psalm-suppress InvalidArgument */
+        return $this->createCommand()
+            ->query()
+            ->indexBy($this->indexBy)
+            ->resultCallback($this->populateOne(...));
     }
 
     /**
@@ -235,22 +224,25 @@ public function prepare(QueryBuilderInterface $builder): QueryInterface
      * @throws NotSupportedException
      * @throws ReflectionException
      * @throws Throwable
+     *
+     * @psalm-param list<array> $rows
+     * @psalm-return (
+     *     $rows is non-empty-list<array>
+     *         ? non-empty-list<ActiveRecordInterface|array>
+     *         : list<ActiveRecordInterface|array>
+     * )
      */
-    public function populate(array $rows, Closure|string|null $indexBy = null): array
+    public function populate(array $rows): array
     {
         if (empty($rows)) {
             return [];
         }
 
-        $models = $this->createModels($rows);
-
-        if (empty($models)) {
-            return [];
+        if (!empty($this->join) && $this->indexBy === null) {
+            $rows = $this->removeDuplicatedRows($rows);
         }
 
-        if (!empty($this->join) && $this->getIndexBy() === null) {
-            $models = $this->removeDuplicatedModels($models);
-        }
+        $models = $this->createModels($rows);
 
         if (!empty($this->with)) {
             $this->findWith($this->with, $models);
@@ -260,94 +252,68 @@ public function populate(array $rows, Closure|string|null $indexBy = null): arra
             $this->addInverseRelations($models);
         }
 
-        return ArArrayHelper::index($models, $indexBy);
+        return $models;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Removes duplicated models by checking their primary key values.
+     * Removes duplicated rows by checking their primary key values.
      *
      * This method is mainly called when a join query is performed, which may cause duplicated rows being returned.
      *
-     * @param ActiveRecordInterface[]|array[] $models The models to be checked.
+     * @param array[] $rows The rows to be checked.
      *
      * @throws CircularReferenceException
      * @throws Exception
      * @throws InvalidConfigException
      * @throws NotInstantiableException
      *
-     * @return ActiveRecordInterface[]|array[] The distinctive models.
+     * @return array[] The distinctive rows.
+     *
+     * @psalm-param non-empty-list<array> $rows
+     * @psalm-return non-empty-list<array>
      */
-    private function removeDuplicatedModels(array $models): array
+    private function removeDuplicatedRows(array $rows): array
     {
-        $model = reset($models);
+        $instance = $this->getARInstance();
+        $pks = $instance->primaryKey();
 
-        if ($this->asArray) {
-            $instance = $this->getARInstance();
-            $pks = $instance->primaryKey();
+        if (empty($pks)) {
+            throw new InvalidConfigException('Primary key of "' . $instance::class . '" can not be empty.');
+        }
 
-            if (empty($pks)) {
-                throw new InvalidConfigException('Primary key of "' . $instance::class . '" can not be empty.');
-            }
-
-            foreach ($pks as $pk) {
-                /** @var array $model */
-                if (!isset($model[$pk])) {
-                    return $models;
-                }
+        foreach ($pks as $pk) {
+            if (!isset($rows[0][$pk])) {
+                return $rows;
             }
+        }
 
-            /** @var array[] $models */
-            if (count($pks) === 1) {
-                $hash = array_column($models, reset($pks));
-            } else {
-                $flippedPks = array_flip($pks);
-                $hash = array_map(
-                    static fn (array $model): string => serialize(array_intersect_key($model, $flippedPks)),
-                    $models
-                );
-            }
+        if (count($pks) === 1) {
+            $hash = array_column($rows, reset($pks));
         } else {
-            /** @var ActiveRecordInterface $model */
-            $pks = $model->getPrimaryKey(true);
-
-            if (empty($pks)) {
-                throw new InvalidConfigException('Primary key of "' . $model::class . '" can not be empty.');
-            }
-
-            /** @var ActiveRecordInterface[] $models */
-            foreach ($pks as $pk) {
-                if ($pk === null) {
-                    return $models;
-                }
-            }
-
-            if (count($pks) === 1) {
-                $key = array_key_first($pks);
-                $hash = array_map(
-                    static fn (ActiveRecordInterface $model): string => (string) $model->get($key),
-                    $models
-                );
-            } else {
-                $hash = array_map(
-                    static fn (ActiveRecordInterface $model): string => serialize($model->getPrimaryKey(true)),
-                    $models
-                );
-            }
+            $flippedPks = array_flip($pks);
+            $hash = array_map(
+                static fn (array $row): string => serialize(array_intersect_key($row, $flippedPks)),
+                $rows
+            );
         }
 
-        return array_values(array_combine($hash, $models));
+        /** @psalm-var non-empty-list<array> */
+        return array_values(array_combine($hash, $rows));
     }
 
     public function one(): array|ActiveRecordInterface|null
     {
-        /** @var array|null $row */
-        $row = parent::one();
+        if ($this->shouldEmulateExecution()) {
+            return null;
+        }
+
+        $row = $this->createCommand()->queryOne();
 
         if ($row === null) {
             return null;
         }
 
-        return $this->populate([$row])[0];
+        return $this->populateOne($row);
     }
 
     /**
@@ -955,6 +921,11 @@ public function getARInstance(): ActiveRecordInterface
         return new $class();
     }
 
+    protected function index(array $rows): array
+    {
+        return ArArrayHelper::index($this->populate($rows), $this->indexBy);
+    }
+
     private function createInstance(): static
     {
         return (new static($this->arClass))
@@ -974,4 +945,9 @@ private function createInstance(): static
             ->params($this->params)
             ->withQueries($this->withQueries);
     }
+
+    private function populateOne(array $row): ActiveRecordInterface|array
+    {
+        return $this->populate([$row])[0];
+    }
 }
diff --git a/src/ActiveQueryInterface.php b/src/ActiveQueryInterface.php
index 094ee5156..ff94adb1d 100644
--- a/src/ActiveQueryInterface.php
+++ b/src/ActiveQueryInterface.php
@@ -351,11 +351,16 @@ public function sql(string|null $value): static;
      *
      * @param array[] $rows The raw query result from a database.
      *
-     * @psalm-param IndexKey|null $indexBy
-     *
      * @return ActiveRecordInterface[]|array[] The converted query result.
+     *
+     * @psalm-param list<array> $rows
+     * @psalm-return (
+     *     $rows is non-empty-list<array>
+     *         ? non-empty-list<ActiveRecordInterface|array>
+     *         : list<ActiveRecordInterface|array>
+     * )
      */
-    public function populate(array $rows, Closure|string|null $indexBy = null): array;
+    public function populate(array $rows): array;
 
     /**
      * Returns related record(s).
@@ -640,6 +645,9 @@ public function one(): array|ActiveRecordInterface|null;
      * @throws InvalidArgumentException|InvalidConfigException|NotSupportedException|Throwable If {@see link()} is
      * invalid.
      * @return ActiveRecordInterface[]|array[] The related models.
+     *
+     * @psalm-param non-empty-list<ActiveRecordInterface|array> $primaryModels
+     * @psalm-param-out non-empty-list<ActiveRecordInterface|array> $primaryModels
      */
     public function populateRelation(string $name, array &$primaryModels): array;
 }
diff --git a/src/ActiveQueryTrait.php b/src/ActiveQueryTrait.php
index 32880b4b7..bc2783b31 100644
--- a/src/ActiveQueryTrait.php
+++ b/src/ActiveQueryTrait.php
@@ -107,6 +107,9 @@ public function with(array|string ...$with): static
      *
      * @throws InvalidConfigException
      * @return ActiveRecordInterface[]|array[] The model instances.
+     *
+     * @psalm-param non-empty-list<array> $rows
+     * @psalm-return non-empty-list<ActiveRecordInterface|array>
      */
     protected function createModels(array $rows): array
     {
@@ -114,21 +117,25 @@ protected function createModels(array $rows): array
             return $rows;
         }
 
-        $arClassInstance = [];
-
-        foreach ($rows as $row) {
-            $arClass = $this->getARInstance();
+        if ($this->resultCallback !== null) {
+            $rows = ($this->resultCallback)($rows);
 
-            if (method_exists($arClass, 'instantiate')) {
-                $arClass = $arClass->instantiate($row);
+            if ($rows[0] instanceof ActiveRecordInterface) {
+                /** @psalm-var non-empty-list<ActiveRecordInterface> */
+                return $rows;
             }
+        }
+
+        $models = [];
 
+        foreach ($rows as $row) {
+            $arClass = $this->getARInstance();
             $arClass->populateRecord($row);
 
-            $arClassInstance[] = $arClass;
+            $models[] = $arClass;
         }
 
-        return $arClassInstance;
+        return $models;
     }
 
     /**
@@ -144,7 +151,8 @@ protected function createModels(array $rows): array
      * @throws ReflectionException
      * @throws Throwable
      *
-     * @param-out ActiveRecordInterface[]|array[] $models
+     * @psalm-param non-empty-list<ActiveRecordInterface|array> $models
+     * @psalm-param-out non-empty-list<ActiveRecordInterface|array> $models
      */
     public function findWith(array $with, array &$models): void
     {
diff --git a/src/ActiveRelationTrait.php b/src/ActiveRelationTrait.php
index 65d9ee738..aab04161d 100644
--- a/src/ActiveRelationTrait.php
+++ b/src/ActiveRelationTrait.php
@@ -202,7 +202,8 @@ public function relatedRecords(): ActiveRecordInterface|array|null
      *
      * @throws InvalidConfigException
      *
-     * @param-out ActiveRecordInterface[]|array[] $result
+     * @psalm-param non-empty-list<ActiveRecordInterface|array> $result
+     * @psalm-param-out non-empty-list<ActiveRecordInterface|array> $result
      */
     private function addInverseRelations(array &$result): void
     {
@@ -232,9 +233,10 @@ private function addInverseRelations(array &$result): void
     }
 
     /**
-     * @return ActiveRecordInterface[]|array[]
+     * @psalm-param non-empty-list<ActiveRecordInterface|array> $primaryModels
+     * @psalm-param-out non-empty-list<ActiveRecordInterface|array> $primaryModels
      *
-     * @param-out ActiveRecordInterface[]|array[] $primaryModels
+     * @return ActiveRecordInterface[]|array[]
      */
     public function populateRelation(string $name, array &$primaryModels): array
     {
@@ -262,16 +264,16 @@ public function populateRelation(string $name, array &$primaryModels): array
             $models = [$this->one()];
             $this->populateInverseRelation($models, $primaryModels);
 
-            $primaryModel = reset($primaryModels);
+            $primaryModel = $primaryModels[0];
 
             if ($primaryModel instanceof ActiveRecordInterface) {
                 $primaryModel->populateRelation($name, $models[0]);
             } else {
                 /**
-                 * @var array[] $primaryModels
-                 * @psalm-suppress PossiblyNullArrayOffset
+                 * @psalm-var non-empty-list<array> $primaryModels
+                 * @psalm-suppress UndefinedInterfaceMethod
                  */
-                $primaryModels[key($primaryModels)][$name] = $models[0];
+                $primaryModels[0][$name] = $models[0];
             }
 
             return $models;
@@ -319,12 +321,14 @@ public function populateRelation(string $name, array &$primaryModels): array
 
     /**
      * @throws \Yiisoft\Definitions\Exception\InvalidConfigException
+     *
+     * @psalm-param non-empty-list<ActiveRecordInterface|array> $primaryModels
      */
     private function populateInverseRelation(
         array &$models,
         array $primaryModels,
     ): void {
-        if ($this->inverseOf === null || empty($models) || empty($primaryModels)) {
+        if ($this->inverseOf === null || empty($models)) {
             return;
         }
 
@@ -643,13 +647,11 @@ private function getModelKeys(ActiveRecordInterface|array $model, array $propert
      * @throws Throwable
      * @throws \Yiisoft\Definitions\Exception\InvalidConfigException
      * @return array[]
+     *
+     * @psalm-param non-empty-list<ActiveRecordInterface|array> $primaryModels
      */
     private function findJunctionRows(array $primaryModels): array
     {
-        if (empty($primaryModels)) {
-            return [];
-        }
-
         $this->filterByModels($primaryModels);
 
         /** @var array[] */
diff --git a/tests/ActiveRecordTest.php b/tests/ActiveRecordTest.php
index 9aa9e4ceb..acb190a4b 100644
--- a/tests/ActiveRecordTest.php
+++ b/tests/ActiveRecordTest.php
@@ -28,6 +28,7 @@
 use Yiisoft\ActiveRecord\Tests\Stubs\ActiveRecord\Profile;
 use Yiisoft\ActiveRecord\Tests\Stubs\ActiveRecord\Type;
 use Yiisoft\ActiveRecord\Tests\Support\Assert;
+use Yiisoft\ActiveRecord\Tests\Support\ModelFactory;
 use Yiisoft\Db\Exception\Exception;
 use Yiisoft\Db\Exception\InvalidArgumentException;
 use Yiisoft\Db\Exception\InvalidCallException;
@@ -234,7 +235,7 @@ public function testPopulateRecordCallWhenQueryingOnParentClass(): void
         $dog = new Dog();
         $dog->save();
 
-        $animal = new ActiveQuery(Animal::class);
+        $animal = (new ActiveQuery(Animal::class))->resultCallback(ModelFactory::create(...));
 
         $animals = $animal->where(['type' => Dog::class])->one();
         $this->assertEquals('bark', $animals->getDoes());
diff --git a/tests/BatchQueryResultTest.php b/tests/BatchQueryResultTest.php
index ca6d3a89e..038cc426f 100644
--- a/tests/BatchQueryResultTest.php
+++ b/tests/BatchQueryResultTest.php
@@ -50,8 +50,8 @@ public function testQuery(): void
 
         $this->assertCount(3, $allRows);
 
-        /** reset */
-        $batch->reset();
+        /** rewind */
+        $batch->rewind();
 
         /** empty query */
         $query = $customerQuery->where(['id' => 100]);
@@ -89,7 +89,7 @@ public function testQuery(): void
 
         $allRows = [];
 
-        foreach ($query->each(2) as $index => $row) {
+        foreach ($query->each() as $index => $row) {
             $allRows[$index] = $row;
         }
         $this->assertCount(3, $allRows);
@@ -104,7 +104,7 @@ public function testQuery(): void
 
         $allRows = [];
 
-        foreach ($query->each(100) as $key => $row) {
+        foreach ($query->each() as $key => $row) {
             $allRows[$key] = $row;
         }
 
diff --git a/tests/MagicActiveRecordTest.php b/tests/MagicActiveRecordTest.php
index 051ed35a3..23167fb91 100644
--- a/tests/MagicActiveRecordTest.php
+++ b/tests/MagicActiveRecordTest.php
@@ -23,6 +23,7 @@
 use Yiisoft\ActiveRecord\Tests\Stubs\MagicActiveRecord\OrderItemWithNullFK;
 use Yiisoft\ActiveRecord\Tests\Stubs\MagicActiveRecord\Type;
 use Yiisoft\ActiveRecord\Tests\Support\Assert;
+use Yiisoft\ActiveRecord\Tests\Support\ModelFactory;
 use Yiisoft\Db\Exception\Exception;
 use Yiisoft\Db\Exception\InvalidArgumentException;
 use Yiisoft\Db\Exception\InvalidCallException;
@@ -227,7 +228,7 @@ public function testPopulateRecordCallWhenQueryingOnParentClass(): void
         $dog = new Dog();
         $dog->save();
 
-        $animal = new ActiveQuery(Animal::class);
+        $animal = (new ActiveQuery(Animal::class))->resultCallback(ModelFactory::create(...));
 
         $animals = $animal->where(['type' => Dog::class])->one();
         $this->assertEquals('bark', $animals->getDoes());
diff --git a/tests/Stubs/ActiveRecord/Animal.php b/tests/Stubs/ActiveRecord/Animal.php
index 5530334b6..b5e5e1e4a 100644
--- a/tests/Stubs/ActiveRecord/Animal.php
+++ b/tests/Stubs/ActiveRecord/Animal.php
@@ -5,7 +5,6 @@
 namespace Yiisoft\ActiveRecord\Tests\Stubs\ActiveRecord;
 
 use Yiisoft\ActiveRecord\ActiveRecord;
-use Yiisoft\ActiveRecord\ActiveRecordInterface;
 
 /**
  * Class Animal.
@@ -32,13 +31,6 @@ public function getDoes()
         return $this->does;
     }
 
-    public function instantiate($row): ActiveRecordInterface
-    {
-        $class = $row['type'];
-
-        return new $class();
-    }
-
     public function setDoes(string $value): void
     {
         $this->does = $value;
diff --git a/tests/Stubs/MagicActiveRecord/Animal.php b/tests/Stubs/MagicActiveRecord/Animal.php
index 2e2d0ae34..c6ad39fbc 100644
--- a/tests/Stubs/MagicActiveRecord/Animal.php
+++ b/tests/Stubs/MagicActiveRecord/Animal.php
@@ -5,7 +5,6 @@
 namespace Yiisoft\ActiveRecord\Tests\Stubs\MagicActiveRecord;
 
 use Yiisoft\ActiveRecord\Tests\Stubs\MagicActiveRecord;
-use Yiisoft\ActiveRecord\ActiveRecordInterface;
 
 /**
  * Class Animal.
@@ -32,13 +31,6 @@ public function getDoes()
         return $this->does;
     }
 
-    public function instantiate($row): ActiveRecordInterface
-    {
-        $class = $row['type'];
-
-        return new $class($this->db());
-    }
-
     public function setDoes(string $value): void
     {
         $this->does = $value;
diff --git a/tests/Support/ModelFactory.php b/tests/Support/ModelFactory.php
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..5e105d8ec
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/Support/ModelFactory.php
@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+<?php
+
+declare(strict_types=1);
+
+namespace Yiisoft\ActiveRecord\Tests\Support;
+
+class ModelFactory
+{
+    public static function create(array $rows): array
+    {
+        $models = [];
+
+        foreach ($rows as $row) {
+            $class = $row['type'];
+
+            $model = new $class();
+            $model->populateRecord($row);
+
+            $models[] = $model;
+        }
+
+        return $models;
+    }
+}